Thomas Gray and Robert Burns
This blog is part of paper No. 102: Literature of the Neo-classical Period
- What do you understand by the term transitional? How do the poets and writers of the later half of the 18th century represent the transition from the sensibility of one literary age to that of another? What were some of the significant characteristics of their works?
Realism
Coming to prominence with the nineteenth-century novel, literary realism has most often been associated with the insistence that art cannot turn away from the more sordid and harsh aspects of human existence. However, because realism is unavoidably tied up with the gnarly concept of 'reality' and 'the real', it has been one of the most widely debated terms in the New Critical Idiom series.This volume offers a clear, reader-friendly guide to debates around realism, examining:*ideas of realism in nineteenth-century French and British fiction*the twentieth-century formalist reaction against literature's status as 'truth'*realism as a democratic tool, or utopian form.This volume is vital reading for any student of literature, in particular those working on the realist novel.
Eighteenth-century women poets and their poetry: inventing agency, inventing genre
Co-Winner, James Russell Lowell Prize, Modern Language Association This major study offers a broad view of the writing and careers of eighteenth-century women poets, casting new light on the ways in which poetry was read and enjoyed, on changing poetic tastes in British culture, and on the development of many major poetic genres and traditions. Rather than presenting a chronological survey, Paula R. Backscheider explores the forms in which women wrote and the uses to which they put those forms. Considering more than forty women in relation to canonical male writers of the same era, she concludes that women wrote in all of the genres that men did but often adapted, revised, and even created new poetic kinds from traditional forms. Backscheider demonstrates that knowledge of these women's poetry is necessary for an accurate and nuanced literary history. Within chapters on important canonical and popular verse forms, she gives particular attention to such topics as women's use of religious poetry to express candid ideas about patriarchy and rape; the continuing evolution and important role of the supposedly antiquarian genre of the friendship poetry; same-sex desire in elegy by women as well as by men; and the status of Charlotte Smith as a key figure of the long eighteenth century, not only as a Romantic-era poet.
Sensibility: an introduction
The cult of sensibility jangled the nerves of Europe in the mid-eighteenth century. It touched all literary genres and brought into prominence those qualities of tenderness, compassion, sympathy and irrational benevolence associated with women by the binary psychology of the time. It privileged spontaneous emotion and found this expressed in the bodily manifestations of tears, fainting fits, flushes and palpitations. Valuing the pure victim, it took as its archetypes the innocent dying Clarissa and the benevolent, suffering man of feeling. In Sensibility, originally published in 1986, Janet Todd charts the growth and decline of sentimental writing as a privileged mode in the eighteenth century. She shows how sentimental writing is riven with contradictions: while it applauds fellowship, it also expresses a yearning for isolation, and while it stresses the ties of friendship and family, it does so at the expense of sexual feeling, which grows menacing and destructive. By the 1770s, as the idea of sensibility was losing ground,‘sentimentality’came in as a pejorative term. Janet Todd ends her study of sensibility by detailing the various attacks on the cult, from radicals and conservatives, feminists and Christian moralists; from Coleridge who saw it as unmanning the nation to Jane Austen who considered it an elaborate sham
Transitional Literature: Bridging the Gap
The term "transitional" in literature refers to a period when literary styles and philosophies are shifting from one dominant era to another. It's a time of flux, where the old and the new coexist, influencing and shaping each other.
The Late 18th Century: A Time of Transition
The later half of the 18th century marked a significant transition in English literature, moving from the Neoclassical era to the Romantic era. Poets and writers of this period, often referred to as "Pre-Romantics," reflected this shift in their works. They began to challenge the rigid rules and conventions of Neoclassicism, paving the way for a more expressive and individualistic approach to literature.
Key Characteristics of Transitional Literature:
* A Shift in Sensibility:
* Emotional Depth: Transitional writers explored a wider range of emotions, including melancholy, nostalgia, and sublime awe.
* Individual Experience: They valued personal experience and subjective feelings over objective reason.
* Nature as Inspiration: Nature was seen as a source of spiritual and aesthetic inspiration, often imbued with symbolic meaning.
* New Poetic Forms and Styles:
* The Elegy: This form, popularized by Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," explored themes of mortality, loss, and the beauty of rural life.
* The Ode: Poets like Collins and Gray revived the Pindaric ode, using it to express intense emotions and philosophical ideas.
* The Ballad: The revival of interest in folk ballads led to a new appreciation for oral tradition and simple, direct language.
* Exploration of the Supernatural and Gothic:
* Writers like Horace Walpole and Ann Radcliffe delved into the supernatural, Gothic horror, and the psychological depths of human nature.
Significant Writers of the Transitional Period:
* Thomas Gray: Known for his elegiac poetry and his exploration of the sublime.
* William Collins: A lyric poet who experimented with different poetic forms and styles.
* William Blake: A visionary poet and artist who challenged the conventions of his time and embraced imagination and symbolism.
* Robert Burns: A Scottish poet who celebrated rural life, love, and patriotism.
In conclusion, the transitional period of the late 18th century was a time of great literary innovation and experimentation. The works of these writers laid the foundation for the Romantic movement, which would dominate the early 19th century. By blending the rationalism of the Enlightenment with the emotional intensity of Romanticism, they created a rich and diverse body of literature that continues to inspire readers today.
• “And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Awaits alike th' inevitable hour.” From which work are these lines taken? What do they signify?
The lines “And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, / Awaits alike th' inevitable hour.” are taken from Thomas Gray's poem "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (published in 1751).
Significance of the Lines
These lines underscore the poem’s central theme of mortality and the inevitability of death. Thomas Gray reflects on the fact that no matter how beautiful, wealthy, or accomplished a person may be, death comes for all without exception. In this sense:
1. Equality in Death: The lines highlight the idea that death is the great equalizer, affecting both the rich and the poor, the powerful and the humble alike. Material wealth and physical beauty cannot prevent or delay death.
2. Meditation on the Fleeting Nature of Life: By emphasizing that all worldly achievements eventually lead to the same "inevitable hour"—death—Gray is inviting the reader to contemplate the temporary nature of life's pleasures and successes.
Overall, the poem is a reflection on the quiet dignity of ordinary lives, the passage of time, and the fact that in the end, everyone shares the same fate, regardless of their social status or achievements.
- Discuss why Robert Burns is also considered the National Poet of Scotland.
Robert Burns is considered the National Poet of Scotland for several reasons, rooted in his deep connection to Scottish culture, language, and the common people's experiences. His poetry and songs captured the spirit of Scotland, making him a symbol of national pride. Here are the key reasons why Burns holds this esteemed title:
1. Use of the Scots Language and Dialect
Burns often wrote in the Scots language, a dialect closely associated with the everyday life of Scottish people. By using Scots, Burns gave literary significance to the language, elevating it from being seen merely as a spoken vernacular to a respected literary medium.
This choice helped preserve the Scots language, fostering a sense of national identity and pride among the Scottish people, making Burns’s work deeply rooted in the cultural consciousness of Scotland.
2. Celebration of Scottish Life, Folklore, and Rural Culture
Burns’s poetry often focused on rural life, the natural beauty of the Scottish landscape, and the customs of ordinary people. Poems like "To a Mouse" and "The Cotter’s Saturday Night" highlight the struggles and joys of common folk, bringing their stories to a wider audience.
His engagement with traditional Scottish songs and folk tales, seen in works like "Auld Lang Syne" and "My Love is Like a Red, Red Rose," helped preserve Scottish folklore and traditions, reinforcing his reputation as the bard of the people.
3. Themes of Social Justice, Equality, and Freedom
Burns's poetry frequently addressed issues of social justice, egalitarianism, and personal freedom, resonating with the ideals of the Scottish Enlightenment and broader Romanticism. In poems like "A Man’s a Man for A' That," he argued for the inherent worth of every individual, regardless of social class.
This democratic spirit, advocating for the dignity and equality of all people, became central to the Scottish identity, as Burns’s work aligned with the country's values of fairness and social equality.
4. National Pride and Political Significance
Burns’s works often carried an underlying tone of Scottish national pride, emphasizing Scotland’s distinct cultural identity apart from England. Poems like "Scots Wha Hae," a song inspired by Scottish freedom fighter Robert the Bruce, became an unofficial anthem for Scottish patriotism.
His writing, although not overtly political, tapped into the sense of Scottish nationalism and pride in the country's history, language, and traditions.
5. Accessibility and Popularity
Burns's style was direct, accessible, and emotionally expressive, which made his work relatable to a wide audience. His poetry’s use of simple language, vivid imagery, and humor made him popular during his lifetime and beyond.
His legacy is celebrated annually on January 25th with "Burns Night" or "Burns Supper," where Scots worldwide gather to recite his poetry, eat traditional food like haggis, and remember his contributions to Scottish culture.
6. Legacy and Influence
Burns’s impact extends beyond literature; he became a cultural symbol of Scotland itself. His poems and songs are part of Scottish cultural tradition, and his legacy is evident in Scottish festivals, literature, and the arts.
His famous song, "Auld Lang Syne," is sung around the world to mark New Year’s Eve, demonstrating his global influence and the enduring power of his work.
Overall, Robert Burns is seen as the National Poet of Scotland because his work captures the essence of the Scottish spirit—celebrating its language, culture, history, and people. His poetry not only resonates with Scots but has also achieved universal appeal, making him an enduring symbol of Scotland’s literary and cultural heritage.
Thank you
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