History of the Neo-Classical Age

•  History of the Neo-Classical Age: 

1. Write about the rise of the novel form and its development in the Neo-Classical Age.Answer:

Definition

The novel is a worldwide cultural instrument that helped redefine the time and space where we live, the way we speak and talk, how we feel, and what we do.

According to the dictionary, a novel is:

a fictional prose narrative of considerable length, typically having a plot that is unfolded by the actions, speech, and thoughts of the characters.

the literary genre represented by novels.

A novel (from French “nouvelle” and Italian “novella,” which mean new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative in prose. Until the 18th century, the word referred specifically to short fictions of love and intrigue as opposed to romances, which were epic-length works about love and adventure. During the 18th century, the novel adopted features of the old romance and became one of the major literary genres.

Origins

Novels as we know them began in England in the early 1700s. However, there were some novel prototypes prior to this period, such as:

Sir Thomas Malroy’s Le Mort d’Artur (1485)

Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia (1588)

John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (1678)

Aphra Behn’s Oronooko, or The Royal Slave (1688)

The dominant genre in world literature, the novel is a relatively young form of imaginative writing. Only about 250 years old in England—and embattled from the start— its rise to pre-eminence has been striking. After sparse beginnings in 17th century England, novels grew exponentially in production by the 18th century and in the 19th century became the primary form of popular entertainment.

The rise of the novel coincides with the rise of the middle classes in Western Europe. Profound social and economic changes brought the novel into popular prominence:

advances in the technology of printing made written texts available to a growing population of readers.

changes in modes of distribution and in literacy rates brought books and pamphlets to populations excluded from education, such as working-class men and women.

authors became free agents in the literary marketplace, dependent on popular sales for success and sustenance, reflecting the values of a middle-class readership.

Early Novels

The first English novels created a consciousness among readers and potential writers that a significant and lasting form had come about and that literary careers could be built upon the genre.

Realistic Novel

Example: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defore (1719)

Philosophic Novel

Example: Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726)

Epistolary Novel

Example: Pamela by Samuel Richardson (1740)

Epic Novel

Example: Tom Jones by Henry Fielding (1749)

Experimental Novel

Example: Tristam Shandy by Laurence Sterne (1759)

Gothic Novels

Gothic Novels combined fiction, Romanticism, horror, and touches of the supernatural. They were over-dramatic and not necessarily realistic. They relied heavily on suspense. People considered “trashy” and “low-brow” because they were the least realistic and solely for entertainment. Society considered them a waste of time and energy, possibly even corruptive.

• The Rise of the Novel: A Social and Literary perspective (Neo-classical Period):

The 18th century is generally considered to be the first literary age during which we can speak of the novel as a well-established genre in British literature. The period is difficult to name; it was called by its contemporaries the Augustan or Neoclassical Age (as writers strove to identify themselves with the classical Roman model), or by other names such as Enlightenment, the Age of Reason. 18th century philosophers, such as Locke, Berkeley, D. Hume, Diderot or Voltaire stated the significance of the rational, positive spirit. In their opinion, human knowledge is empirical, based on the perception of the senses, hence its subjectivity and limits. Order was another first-rate value in the Augustan hierarchy. It was associated with thoughtful conduct, efficiency instead of complexity, scientific discoveries, acquiring connotations such as unity, harmony, precision, and clarity.

On the literary scene, the most influential genre that developed during the period was the novel. It was influenced by similar developments on the continent, among which Cervantes's Don Quixote, which was translated in 1700, the writings of Rabelais, or of Lesage, particularly Gil Blas. The ordinary man became the norm, consisting of a variety of individuals, such as the energetic merchant, the country gentleman directing his farms or estates, the lady in her social calls, the doctor, the lawyer, soldier, servant, labourer, in their occupations, the traveller observing life at home and abroad, and the writer including all these as his public and characters. Economic specialization provided a particular kind of audience - the lower and middle classes saw their lives and interests represented with a sympathy and seriousness that had hitherto been accorded only to their betters on the social scale. As A. Sanders has shown in his Short Oxford History of English Literature, the new style emphasized for the most part the everyday experience of men and women in society.

Enlightenment philosophy required a simple, unequivocal instrument of expression, making use of a plain, native language to record experiments and conclusions. No rhetoric, exuberant prose was permitted to obscure common sense, as writers (such as D. Defoe) wanted to communicate their ideas without aiming at a literary distinction. As Ian Watt also shows in his study The Rise of the Novel, the appearance of writers such as D. Defoe, S. Richardson, H. Fielding within a single generation was probably due to the favourable conditions of the time. 18th century literary historians have seen realism as the defining characteristic which differentiates their work from previous fiction (the term was apparently used as an aesthetic description in 1835 to denote the "vérité humaine" of Rembrandt as opposed to "idéalité poétique"). Primarily used as the antonym of "idealism", the term would trace down all possible continuity to earlier works that portrayed low life and where the economic and social motives were given a lot of space in the presentation of human behaviour. Fiction is not a new invention; there are a great number of Middle Age prose stories, of Renaissance romances, allegories, character-studies or picaresque tales. Yet, fiction's relation to life was peripheral, a mere idealization or satire.

Defoe and Richardson are the first great writers in English literature who did not take their plots from mythology, history, legend or previous literature. In this respect, they differ from Chaucer, Spenser, and Shakespeare who used traditional plots. However, besides the plot, much else had to be changed in the tradition of fiction: the actors in the plot and the scene of their actions had to be placed in a new literary perspective. The plot had to be acted in particular circumstances, rather than as had been common in the past - by general human types against a background determined by the appropriate literary convention. The novel is distinguished from other genres by the amount of attention it generally allots both to the individualisation of its characters and to the presentation of their environment. It is also related to the epistemological status of proper names as the expression of a particular identity (medieval or Renaissance writers preferred either historical or type names).

The principle of individuation accepted by Locke was that of existence in space and time; Northrop Frye has seen "time and Western man" as the defining characteristic of the novel compared with other genres. Philosophical and literary innovations must be seen as resulting in "a circumstantial view of life", a feature of the new prose. The narrative method that embodies this view is called formal realism, the premise that it is an authentic report of human experience, giving its readers details concerning the individuality of actors, particulars of their actions, through a more referential use of language than is common in other literary forms. The difference to earlier fiction consists in the fact that such passages were relatively rare, while the plot was traditional and highly improbable.

2. Pick a novelist/poet/dramatist of your choice from those belonging to this literary age and discuss whether or not their works and views can be relevant for our times.

Answer:

 

One significant writer from the Neoclassical era (late 17th to 18th century) is Alexander Pope (1688–1744). Pope was known for his satirical poetry and his sharp commentary on human nature and society. His works, particularly "The Rape of the Lock" and "An Essay on Man," reflect a keen interest in reason, order, and moral virtue—all values central to the Neoclassical Age.

• Relevance of Alexander Pope’s Themes Today:

Gender Roles

In The Rape of the Lock, Pope constantly manipulates traditional gender roles to satiric effect. He portrays Belinda, the poem’s protagonist, alternately as an epic hero preparing for battle (I.139-44), a cunning military general reviewing his troops (III.45-6), and a Moor bellowing in rage (V.105-6). The poem thus describes Belinda in specifically male terms: heroism, battle, anger. Other women in the poem similarly demonstrate masculine characteristics. Thalestris displays her prowess on the battlefield while Clarissa provides a weapon to the otherwise impotent Baron. By contrast, the men act with feminine delicacy, fainting during the battle. Pope figures the Baron in mostly feminine terms. He is a fop, willing to prostrate himself before the altar of Love, and he cannot act on his desire without the explicit assistance of a woman. When Belinda conquers him in battle, she stands above him in a position of dominance. Even the poem’s more mechanical elements partake in this reversal of gender roles. The mythological sprites literally switch genders after they die, transforming from human women to male spirits. All this gender manipulation calls attention to the perverse behaviors of this fictional society. The poem certainly alludes to the expected behavior of each gender role: women should act with modesty while men should embody heroic and chivalric ideals. However, these characters flout the rules of traditional society.

Female Sexuality:

Pope frequently focuses on female sexuality and the place of women in society throughout the corpus of his poetry, and it was a popular topic in the early eighteenth century (just think of Jonathan Swift’s misogynistic poems). The Rape of the Lock does not, however, feature a Swiftian tirade concerning the evils of women. It instead makes a considered exploration of society’s expectations for women. The rules of eighteenth-century society dictate that a woman attract a suitable husband while preserving her chastity and virtuous reputation. Pope renders this double-standard dramatically in his depiction of Belinda’s hair, which attracts male admirers, and its petticoat counterpart, which acts as a barrier to protect her virginity. Of course, a woman who compromised her virtue—either by deed or reputation—usually lost her place in respectable society. Pope examines the loss of reputation in the poem’s sexual allegory, i.e., the “rape” of the lock. By figuring the severing of Belinda’ hair as a sexual violation, Pope delves into implications of sexual transgression. After the Baron steals her curl, Belinda exiles herself from the party, retiring to a bedchamber to mourn her loss. Pope thus dramatizes the retreat from society that a sexually-compromised woman would eventually experience. Though Belinda is ultimately celebrated, not ostracized, by her community, her narrative provides Pope with the opportunity to explore society’s views on female sexuality.

Religious Piety:

The Rape of the Lock demonstrates Pope’s anxieties concerning the state of religious piety during the early eighteenth century. Pope was Catholic, and in the poem he indicates his concern that society has embraced objects of worship (beauty, for example) rather than God. His use of religious imagery reveals this perversion. The rituals he depicts in the first and second cantos equate religion with secular love. During Belinda’s toilette, the poem imbues the Bibles and billet-doux (love letters) on her dressing table with equal significance. The Baron’s altar to Love in the second canto echoes this scene. On the altar—itself an integral part of Christian worship, in particular Catholic Mass—the Baron places “twelve vast French romances, neatly gilt” to honor Love, rather than gilded Bibles (38). Pope symbolizes this equation of religious and erotic love in the cross that Belinda wears. This central symbol of Christianity serves an ornamental, not religious function, adorning Belinda’s “white breast” (7). The cross remains sufficiently secular that “Jews might kiss” it and “infidels adore” it (8). Of course, Pope leaves ambiguous the implication that the Jews and infidels are admiring Belinda’s breasts and not the cross. This subversion of established principles of Christian worship critiques the laxity of early eighteenth-century attitudes towards religion and morality.

Idleness of the Upper Classes:

The idleness and ignorance of the upper classes is integral to Pope’s critique of contemporary society in The Rape of the Lock. His satire focuses largely on the foibles of the aristocracy and gentry, who he depicts as interested only in trivial matters, such as flirting, gossip, and card games. Pope’s rendering of ombre as an epic battle demonstrates the frivolity of upper-class entertainment. In reality an excuse for flirting and gambling, the card game represents the young aristocrats’ only opportunity to gain heroic recognition. This is not, of course, true heroism, but rather a skill that serves no purpose in the outside world. Chief among the upper classes’ other pastimes is gossip, but Pope limits their conversation to the insular world of the aristocratic lifestyle. They care most about “who gave the ball, or paid the visit last,” the irrelevant structures of upper-class socializing (III.12). Few discuss the world beyond the society of Hampton Court: “One speaks the glory of the British Queen, / And one describes a charming Indian screen” (III.13-4). This couplet alludes to the worldly pursuits of trade and empire that are occurring outside of these aristocrats’ small social world.

Ephemeral Nature of Beauty:

Beauty’s ephemeral nature reinforces Pope’s critical project in The Rape of the Lock. His poem attempts to dissuade society from placing excessive value on external appearances, especially since such things fade over time. Clarissa’s lecture in particular questions the value that society places on appearances. She notes that men worship female beauty without assessing moral character. Pope demonstrates that this is essentially a house without foundation: because “frail beauty must decay,” women must have other qualities to sustain them (V.25). Though Clarissa is complicit in the general frivolity and pettiness that Pope censures in the poem, her articulated scruples with regard to appearances serve his social critique.

3. Satire was the dominant form of writing employed by both the poets and prose writers of this age. Discuss at least one major satirical text (either prose or poetry) belonging to this age. How was this text socio-politically significant for this age?

Answer:

A major satirical text from the Neoclassical Age is "Gulliver’s Travels" by Jonathan Swift (1726). This work, while often misinterpreted as a simple adventure tale, is actually a complex satire that critiques various aspects of 18th-century society, politics, science, and human nature.

Gulliver's Travels as a political satire:

Swift's "Gulliver's Travels" is a pure piece of satire where he satirizes party politics, religious differences, and western Culture as a whole in ways still relevant to today's world. But what we find mostly after reading "Book-1" is that it is an allegorical representation of English politics. In where Swift depicts the total political corruption beginning from 16th century and ending with 18th century.

One of the forms of political satire is embodied in the first culture that is met by Gulliver. In Gulliver's first adventure, he begins on a ship that runs aground on a submerged rock. He swims to land, and when he awakens, he finds himself tied down to the ground, and surrounded by tiny people, the Lilliputians. "Irony is present from the start in the simultaneous recreation of Gulliver as giant and prisoner" (Reilly 167). Gulliver is surprised "at the intrepidity of these diminutive mortals, who dare venture to mount and walk upon my body" (I.i.16). The Lilliputians are the embodiment of England of the time period. The Lilliputians are small people who control Gulliver through means of threats. "...when in an instant I felt above a hundred arrows discharged into my left hand, which pricked my like so many needles; and besides they shot another flight into the air, as we do bombs in Europe" (Swift, 24). England was a small country that had Europe (represented by Gulliver) and many other parts of the world under their control.

Gulliver encounters the ridiculous nature of war. His first encounter of war is in the form of a dispute over the way to eat an egg. A former king took the right of personal preference away from his people by telling them to eat the egg from the small end instead of the large end. Swift relates this trait to the situations where a dominant ruler oppresses nations. It also shows how a simple, ridiculous act can bring forth war. The fight continues through generations, soon the people continued to fight without really understanding why. Some of the people resisted, and they found refuge in Blefuscu, and "for six and thirty moons past" the two sides have been at war (I.iv.48). For Swift, Lilliput is analogous to England, and Blefuscu to France. With this event of the story Swift satirizes the needless bickering and fighting between the two nations.

Also vehicles of Swift's satire were the peculiar customs of the nation of Lilliput. The methods of selecting people for public office in Lilliput are very different from that of any other nation, or rather, would appear to be so at first. In order to be chosen, a man must "rope dance" to the best of his abilities; the best rope dancer receives the higher office. “ this diversion is only practiced by those persons who are candidates for great employments and high favour at court”. While no nation of Europe in Swift's time followed such an absurd practice, they did not choose public officers on skill, but rather on how well the candidate could line the right pockets with money.

Gulliver also tells of their custom of burying "their dead with their heads directly downwards...The learned among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine, but the practice still continues" (I.vi.60). At this point in the story, Gulliver has not yet realized that by seeing the absurdity of the Lilliputians' traditions, that he might see the absurdity in European ones. With this Swift satirizes the conditions of Europe.

Again in the same passage, we get Flimnap. According to Swift: “Flimnap, the treasure is allowed to cut a caper on the strait rope at least an inch higher than any other lord in the whole Empire" Here Swift's model for Flimnap , the most dexterous of the rope dancers, was Robert Walpole, the leader of the Whig and and extremely witty politician. His official position was like that of treasurers.

Again in chapter 4 , book 1, swift also narrates the folly of the religious war between Lilliput and Blefuscu to immediate European politics-“ there ( in Lilliput) have been two struggling parties in this Empire, under the name of Tramecksan and Slamecksan, from the high and low heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves."

Here two Lilliputians parties stand for English political parties. The high heels represent Tories, the low heels Whigs. These two massacre the English soil both politically and by religion. In Swift's voice- "we computed the Tramecksan , or High heels , to exceed us in number; but the power wholly on our side" refers to the succession of Whigs in 1714 (i.e. the Hanoverian succession) though the Tories were large in number. Here, it should be mentioned that at first Swift was Whig and later joined the Tory. Again the king was sympathetic to the Whigs. He used them to support Hanover against France and appointed them to official positions to strengthen his position against the House of Lords. Thus the Lilliputians empire, who is George i, wears low heels which is censured by Swift.

Therefore, we can say, religion was a political issue during Swift's time. Owing to a minor religious issue there caused a serious conflict and it also results in the division of the nation into two political groups. Many lives were taken and many kings were to lose their power even their life was taken.

In the concluding part, we can say that Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels is a satirical work.

References 

“The Rise of the Novel.” Literary Vista, 14 June 2013, https://literaryvista.blogspot.com/2013/06/the-rise-of-novel-social-and-literary.html?m=1. Accessed 13 June 2025.

“The Rise of the Novel.” Storytelling for Social Change, Pressbooks, https://pressbooks.pub/storytelling/chapter/the-rise-of-the-novel/. Accessed 13 June 2025.

Thank you .